The Fallen of Lehman Brothers

Introduction Following the downfall of Lehman Brothers, attention was focused on the role of regulators and credit rating agencies in the whole debacle. The public demanded for answers which were not forthcoming from all the concerned parties. This experience was to throw the Sarbanes-Oxley Act under close scrutiny and questions were abound as to how the act was not followed by all concerned parties.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Fallen of Lehman Brothers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Sarbanes-Oxley Act was enacted to protect and control the activities of shareholders and prevent accounting errors. This act restricted considerably all financial activities and corporate independence, still, the attempt was made, and the results were expected. Credit rating agencies were blamed for coming up with false ratings on securities connected to subprime mortgages. Examples of these agencies are Moodys, St andard, and Poors. They were found guilty of assigning exceptionally high ratings to the securities and failing to reexamine the ratings based on the current environment at the time. There was also the issue of autonomy as it was found that the rating agencies did not operate independently as there was a conflict of interest in the rating firms. The rating agencies are often backed up by the issuer who owns the bond that the same agencies rate. The situation with Lehman Brothers Holdings showed that the grounds for its downfall were observed through evident accounting malpractice that was committed by both management and staff. The representatives from all departments did not find it necessary to control the financial activities of the organization, still, they try to get more personal benefits and provide their families with appropriate incomes. Managers got an access to manipulate net profits in order to please the public as well as to demonstrate how skillfully they could achieve professional targets. There was also the lack of transparency in how managers dealt with subordinates who were found to have committed the existed malpractice. There was a clear lack of professional management within the organization (Tibman 23), and the analysis helped to understand that this company was not properly protected from numerous outside and inside factors. Genesis of Credit Crunch at Lehman Brothers Before the company became bankrupt, it had a record loss of 4.8 billion US dollars for the year ended May 2008. This amount of loss was contributed by a drastic fall of revenues for principal transactions including earnings from financial instruments and other assets owned by the company (Copeland 45). The downward shift in transactions can be explained by unrealized losses of US dollars 1.6 in the year 2008 with unrealized gains of 200 million US dollars in 2007 (Copeland 78). Such changes made the Lehman managers think that their earnings were enlarged, and the general si tuation of the company is good indeed; this is why, they failed to notice in time how terrible their situation actually was.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Cardinal point worth noting is the reduction in value of assets which are usually appeared in some financial institutions after using the fair value accounting. Any kind of change of values leads to severe contractions of capital ratios as a result of which it is necessary to force the financial institution in order to sell its assets at a distressed price (Copeland 30). In case the values and changes are analyzed properly, it is possible to define the threats of decline. The application of fair value accounting sends a message that a company’s solvency is deeply undermined by strategies in financial institutions or rather their practices of lending and depositing fund but it is the duty of the regulators to specify the information to use when deciding on the market prices. In accounting, the term ‘fair value’ introduces a kind of unbiased estimate with the help of which potential market prices may be evaluated. Critics argue that fair value accounting values distracts attention from the main issue. The main concern is the quality of the associated disclosure. Former governor of Federal Reserve Bank held that the main focus should be on disclosure so that investors and other beneficiaries of financial statement comprehend the drivers behind fair values (Copeland 34). The evaluation of the company’s fair value was not successful because poor attention was paid to the risk credit that Suisse and Lehman Brothers could face. AIG faced adverse risk because of exposure to credit evasion swaps. If the balance sheet of the mentioned financial institution is evaluated before the crisis, it would have been difficult to investigate the amount of losses following the risks. From this discussion it can be concluded that fair value accounting is not a good mirror image of value that is at risk. Role of Fair Value Fair value in accounting is the price value an entity would make if it were to sell assets or rather the amount paid to settle liabilities in a business entity. From the definition of Generally Accepted Accounting Principle, fair value is the amount at which an asset or a liability can be sold or bought in a current transaction. This is possible only if the transaction is done between willing parties. The best approach for fair values is use of prices quoted in the market but in situation where these prices do not exist, then it calls for the use of reliable information available in the market to determine prices. It is widely recognized that companies employ the use of fair value in recording its assets and liabilities and other financial instruments. An example of a model used in estimating fair values is the valuation model which considers data s uch as: economic conditions, status of the market and prices of other competing instruments. To ensure accuracy in arriving at fair values, business establishments must have a strong internal control system. The end result is a consistent and reasonable valuation process. In recognition of the fact that market conditions varies overtime, appraisal of valuation models must be done on a continuous basis.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Fallen of Lehman Brothers specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The federal government by the use of administrative powers conferred to them by the constitution pressured the Federal Reserve Bank to lower their lending standards to the intermediary banks (Sly 78). Such conditions made the managers pay more attention to mortgage-backed securities which are important debt obligations to represent the right claim on the current cash flows. People or rather investors went to borrow monies in order to invest in the housing finance. A subsequent collapse of the housing sector led to reduction in value of securities. Valuation of these marketable securities was as a result of fair value system. Considering the fact that fair value requires the use of prices at the present time under a specific market condition, mortgage-backed securities were therefore undervalued. Continued employment of present market value when in real terms a market does not exist has destroyed the financial market. The benefit attached to the use of fair value is its ability to provide information on financial assets and liabilities contrary to the historical cost approach. The chosen approach measures the company’s investments in such parameters like acquisition, training, familiarization, and experience. One of the most serious limitations due to this approach is that assets cannot be sold in case check of valuation is dependent on something. Fair value system also provides comparab ility of assets bought or sold at different time period since it reflects the condition of the market at the present time. Investors are also more concerned with details of the balance sheet and other financial statements (Henri 67). For this reason, its preparation and disclosure will go along in supplementing on the information they have before a critical step of choosing an investment. Securities and Exchange Board Out of all this, the major organization seen to be at the center of the blame is the Securities and Exchange board which seemed to have turned a blind eye in regulating and investigating complaints that had been raised before. The major cause within the board was its Consolidated Supervised Entities program which was supposed to check and investigate on the investment’s bank liquid capability. The program required that an investment bank preserve adequate liquid asset that can last a year (Tibman 54). In Lehman’s case the SEC did not enforce this program despite acquiring enough evidence to enforce legal action against the investment bank. Following a series of stress tests which assesses the level of liquidity, the bank failed to show how it could endure a year without unsecured funding but was allowed to operate. Sarbanes-Oxley Act The Sarbanes-Oxley Act was meant to ensure that no other melt down such as ENRON would be experienced again. The act gives mandates to company boards and accounting firms that are public in addition to transparent and full disclosure of accounting statements. The act also requires the SEC to regulate organizations and companies.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The act seemed reliant on the SEC which at the time was compromised .Commercial banks issued subprime mortgages that had the full security of investment banks such as Lehman. At the time of enacting the act, the onset of such events had not been thought about and no one had imagined that such a blow to Lehman was coming. This was because of the way Lehman was making money out of collaterized debt obligations that were in doubt. In lay mans terms the bonds offered was backed by mortgage pools. It is out of these events that have led to the general public perception that the agencies cannot prevent future accounting fraud. Many Americans questioned do not trust the same bodies that were responsible in aiding the whole economic mess that they are now experiencing. Currently the Sarbanes-Oxley Act has significantly improved the quality of audit. Under the conditions of the Act, the audit services are performed for a public firm and a number of non attest services are performed for the c lients. Such division of services reduces the chances of false and misleading financial statements. As the parties are involved in the preparation of financial statements, they are autonomous and specialize in the chosen sphere of life. For instance, an actuary undertakes actuarial services rather than the auditor. This greatly improves the quality of the financial statements and the information reflected on the statements. The Act also points out the procedures to be followed and the appropriate personnel to undertake related tasks. Therefore, uniformity is upheld while the Act is impartial at the same time. Unruly conduct in preparation of financial statements carries along related punitive measures. Therefore, auditors and other parties remain to be under a strict control and a number of guidelines stipulated. On the one hand, the country wins a lot due to the Act as it is obligatory to control the corporations and analyze their incomes. On the other hand, this Act promotes a cer tain dependence on many outside factors which deprive the companies of a chance to grow and the managers of a chance to earn more. Effects of Credit Crunch The effect of the crisis has made many financial institutions to resort to securitization process. The price of the houses which has also risen sharply has created in the minds of the lenders the perception that it is still not risky. High valued properties have been repossessed from individuals due to the loans which are unpaid. This has led to the increase in popularity of â€Å"self-certified† loans especially in the United States of America (Henri 65) There are the banks that have begun buying securities from other banks. On the one hand, the Collateral Debt obligations could enhance the risk spread, still, on the other hand, these obligations are largely complicated and often do not reveal the bad loans. Apparently no one wants to receive bad news when things seem to be good. In fact, those people whose risks raised c oncerns about security were about to lose their jobs, while those people who try to mitigate risks may face a potential decline in their respective market shares (Krugman 45). Banks consider being â€Å"high street† and involve themselves in a kind of investment, which is through trading, buying and selling risk. On the other hand, investment banks which are not satisfied with trading, that is, buying and selling of the risks have involved themselves in mortgages as well as loans which they have limited management skills/controls thus putting their operations at a more riskier position. It is unfortunate that the use of a financial instrument to lend money and securities as well as reducing risks in the financial service industry has suddenly backfired due to the current economic crisis. Failure of the banks to lend has trickled to the public and this has shattered many people’s confidence. As a result, the lending process has decreased while ceasing to exist in some c ases. Loaners opt to get their money back due to the crashing down of assets and most investment banks have little or no deposits to fall back on. The financial institutions have been collapsing at a shockingly gradual rate (Krugman 89) The sub-prime and the mortgages are not the reasons why there is an economic crisis affecting the financial institutions but they are only the consequences. The main reason for the economic crisis in the financial service industry the weak policies that have been adopted and implemented in the financial sector. For example, during this period, the Federal Reserve has had negative interest rates which force the institutional investments to park money and get return. The mortgage –backed securities have become a favorite investment instrument. Housing investment companies are looking forward to replace the fees earned during the recent economic bubble. (Krugman 67) Under the US requirements by the Federal Reserve, banks are required to have a ce rtain percentage of the capital requirement to back up the loans that they make. Therefore many banks and the financial institutions have Mortgage-based securities assets on their books. This has made them have less capital at hand since to outset the outstanding loans. Therefore they have been forced to raise capital which in the end has raised fears concerning their solvency and this has accounted for the reason why some banks have gone under liquidation. It has been observed that the general economy does not face liquidity crisis since the general economic output is generally up and unemployment is at an average of 7 percent worldwide. The process could soon spread to the capital market certainly (Krugman 110). The problem has become so enormous to a point that even those banks which have huge reserves of capital have run out and therefore they have remained with no option but to approach governments in order to be bailed out. But unfortunately that is not enough to restore peopl es’ confidence. Research shows that banks which are in the process of shrinking normally absorb much money from the countries reserves and the economy as they make an effort to put together their previous capital. New Regulation There have been calls for new regulation following the debacle that followed Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers (Tibman 102). Calls for the overhaul of Regulations touching on corporate governance have been voiced by scholars and policy makers. In a country where compliance is expensive, these voices are fast becoming the voice of the majority. A good example of how costly it is to comply is how it needs one to re-tool their IT systems and employing more executives dealing with compliance issues. There is also the increased cost of payment to audit committees (Johnasses 23). Conclusion The new regulations that are being called for can lead to a better and more transparent environment for organizations as it will be cheaper for them to audit and report t o the authorities. The example of Lehman Brother Holdings show that it is possible to have high ratings, appropriate costs, and rather beneficial incomes, and still, undergo considerable challenges and financial problems which could lead to downfall. To avoid unpleasant outcomes in huge corporations as well as in small private companies, it is very important to create controlling centers which are able to evaluate the financial situation constantly and consider the changes which come from the outside. Currency improvements or fair value accounting should be controlled thoroughly as they may prevent the managers from observing threats within a particular company. The regulations like the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 may enhance the already existed standards and limit the activities of the companies within a short period of time, this is why the companies should be ready to take a number of steps in order to avoid losses, gain more benefits, and overcome the conditions which lead to dow nfall. Works Cited Copeland, Mary. Reviving the World Economy and Reforming The Financial Systems. New York: New York publishers, 2008. Henri, Sam. Healthy banks needed for revival. California: The Sidney Morning Herald, 2009. Johnasses, Ben. Sub-prime crisis. London: Sage, 2008. Krugman, Peter. The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008. New York :Norton Company Limited, 2009. Sly, Mark. The Reasons behind Global Economic Crisis† in Macro-economics. London, Oxford Publishers, 2008. Tibman, Joseph. The Murder of Lehman Brothers: An Insider’s Look at the Global Meltdown. London: Oxford Publishers, 2009. This term paper on The Fallen of Lehman Brothers was written and submitted by user Brantley Oneill to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Meaning and History of the Surname Callaghan

Meaning and History of the Surname Callaghan The Callaghan surname is derived from the Gaelic name Ó Ceallagchin, meaning descendant of Ceallanchn. The O prefix indicates descendant of, while Ceallagchin is a diminutive of Ceallach, a given name of uncertain origin. The most widely accepted meaning is bright-headed, from the Gaelic cen, meaning head and lach, meaning light Other possibilities include: lover of churches, from ceall, meaning churchfrom the Old Irish ceallach, meaning contention, strifeFrom ciallach, meaning prudent, judicious Surname Origin:  Irish Alternate Surname Spellings:  OCALLAGHAN, CALLAHAN, CALLACHAN, CEALLACHAIN, CELLACHAN, CEALLAGHAN, CELLACHAIN, OCALLAGHAN, OCALLAHAN, KEELAGHAN Famous People with the Surname CALLAGHAN Fr Richard Callaghan - 18th century Irish Jesuit educationalistEdmund Bailey OCallaghan - Irish doctor and journalistJohn Cornelius OCallaghan - Irish historian and writerSir Francis OCallaghan - Irish civil engineerJames Callaghan  - UK Prime Minister, 1976–79Dr. Patrick Pat  OCallaghan - considered one of Irelands greatest athletes; Olympic gold medalist Where is the CALLAGHAN  Surname Most Commonly Found? Forebears identifies the  Callaghan  surname as being most common in Ireland, where it ranks 112th in the nation. It is also fairly common in Northern Ireland (ranked 433rd), Scotland (541st), Australia (593rd), Wales (653rd), New Zealand (657th) and England (658th). Within Ireland, Callaghan is the most common in Cork. The OCallaghan variant ranks just behind Callaghan in Ireland, coming in as number 113. WorldNames PublicProfiler identifies the Callaghan surname as more common in Donegal and the other northern Irish counties. Genealogy Resources for the Surname CALLAGHAN Common Surnames of IrelandDiscover the meaning of your Irish last name, and learn where in Ireland these Irish surnames are most commonly found Callaghan  Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Callaghan  family crest or coat of arms for the Callaghan surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. OCallaghan/Callaghan/Callahan/Keelaghan DNA ProjectIndividuals with the Callaghan surname and variations are invited to join this project dedicated to combining the results of DNA testing with genealogy research to identify various Callaghan and OCallaghan family lines. Callaghan Family Genealogy ForumSearch this popular genealogy forum for the Callaghan surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Callaghan query. DistantCousin.com - CALLAGHAN  Genealogy Family HistoryExplore free databases and genealogy links for the last name Callaghan. GeneaNet - Callaghan  RecordsGeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Callaghan  surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. The Callaghan  Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse family trees and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the last name Callaghan  from the website of Genealogy Today. Sources Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Studies in Interpersonal Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Studies in Interpersonal Communication - Essay Example The same applies to preaching in different denominations. In order for the sermon to be effective, the congregants should show a desire to listen to what the preacher is saying. It can be observed that those who listen well are likely to gain more information from the people speaking at a particular period. Basically, communication is primarily concerned with creating meaning from the messages passed from the sender to receiver and this is possible if the parties involved are willing to listen to each other. The other important aspect about listening is that it creates mutual benefits to the parties involved in the communication process. It is suggested that listening to feedback from others helps us to understand what is being said and correct any misunderstanding that may arise (Burley-Allen , 169). In interpersonal communication, deception is very common. â€Å"Deception can vary from blatant lies to indirect actions such as exaggerations and false implications† (Hopper & Bell, 1984 as cited in Stewart, Zediker. & Witteborn, ND, p. 330). It can be noted that deception can be either intentional or unintentional. However, the controversy about deception is that some people believe that some motives of deception are positive while others are of the view that it â€Å"is always damaging to the relationship (Stewart, Zediker. & Witteborn, ND, p. 329). There are various implications of deception on interpersonal communication. People often use deception for personal gain and some individuals often view it as honest lying. In order to gain something, people choose to deceive others so that they can gain the special favour. However, even this action can be good to the other party, it is viewed as damaging to the other party. This brings out the controversy where there is lack of general agreement about deception for it being good or bad. The interactive

ASSESS THE VIEW THAT REFORMING THE REGULATION OF PRIVATE SECURITY Essay

ASSESS THE VIEW THAT REFORMING THE REGULATION OF PRIVATE SECURITY INDUSTRY IS USELESS, WHAT IS REQUIRED IS DEREGULATION - Essay Example This paper will explain why this measure is counterproductive both for the public and for the industry. The SIA was created under the Private Security Industry Act 2001. The law provides two mandates for the agency: 1) the licensing, regulation, monitoring, inspection of private security workers and organisations; and, 2) the management of the Approved Contractor Scheme, a voluntary assessment mechanism designed to evaluate the quality and performance of private security suppliers (PSIA 2001) Art 1(2). The statute was enacted in response to the widespread criminality in Britain in the early 2000 involving contract security guards, bouncers, among other workers for security firms (Travis 2012). With the passage of the law and the creation of the SIA, the private security industry employees require license to practice or operate. A criminal background check is also mandatory for such license. This is the same for organisations. Stringent checks, evaluation, monitoring and assessment mechanisms are in place, making it possible to deter criminality involving people or groups belonging to the industry. For supporters of the regulation, the law and the mandate of the SIA are even considered insufficient. For example, many believed that the system is too narrow since it excludes many sectors in the security industry like security systems installers and in-house guards (Jones, 2006, p.43). There are those who also point out that the law lacks teeth because of the voluntary nature of the regulation wherein private security firms are not mandated to follow regulation or be subjected to SIA control in several aspects of their operations. The arguments brought forward by these criticisms reveal how the law and the SIA are important and are even lacking in many respects. It underpins the fundamental argument that this governmental

Muhammad And The Rise Of Islam

Muhammad And The Rise Of Islam Islam is a monotheistic faith and one of the largest religions in the world. With a total population of almost 1.5 billion followers, it is also the fastest growing.  [i]  The reason for this steady rise is not only the increasing population in Muslim countries, but also the growing number of people who are turning to Islam, a phenomenon that has recently gained momentum, especially after the attacks of September 11th when the religion was put under the spotlight.  [ii]  However, despite all of this, questions that are often asked are, how did Islam rise to become one of the most represented group in modern times? Where did it originate and how did it all start? In order to answer these questions, we must go back more than 1400 years and trace the life of man, who almost single handedly changed the dynamics of this world. In the year 570 AD, Muhammad bin Abdullah was born into a noble family that belonged to a clan of the Quraish, the ruling tribe of modern day Mecca. The city was home to the Kabah, a holy shrine, which attracted thousands of people every year from nearby lands who would come and offer pilgrimage. Mecca soon became an important religious center and a financial hub, linking the Arabian Peninsula with powerful empires such as the Ethiopians and the Byzantines.  [iii]  As a result, the city became dominated by several influential families, among whom the Quraish were preeminent. Muhammads father, Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib, died before the boy was born. He was raised by his widow mother until the age of six when she too passed away, leaving him under the care of his paternal grandfather. After his death, the orphan was consigned to his uncle, Abu Talib, who took Muhammad in as his own son. As was customary, Muhammad was sent to live for a year or two with a Bedouin family that resided in the desert outskirts of Mecca. This period of his life had important and lasting implications on Muhammad. In addition to enduring the hardships of desert life, he acquired a taste for the rich language of the locals, whose speech was their proudest art. He also learned the patience and forbearance of the herdsmen, whose life of solitude he first shared and then later came to understand and appreciate.  [iv]   From his early youth, Muhammad was famous for his honesty and truthfulness. He was respected by everyone and was considered one of the most reliable people in Mecca. The people of Quraish honored him with the title of Al-Amin meaning the trustworthy and this purity of his nature increased as he grew older.  [v]  Muhammad also seemed to possess an inner knowledge that other people did not. He would refuse to worship the countless idols and gods that were central to pre-Islamic life in Mecca and would rather spend countless hours in meditation by himself, trying to seek true knowledge. When Muhammad reached his early twenties, he started working for a woman who went by the name of Khadija bint Khuwalid. She was a widow but was known for being a rich and successful merchant. Muhammad used to actively engage in leading her trade caravans up north, making handsome profits every time he did so. Khadija was so deeply impressed by his work ethics that she sent him a proposal of matrimony which Muhammad happily accepted. Even though Khadija was fifteen years older than him, the marriage proved to be very successful. Muhammad had gained a companion who was always there for him whenever he needed moral support and comfort. Muhammad grew more and more spiritually restless as the days went by and he started increasing the time he spent in meditation. In order to get away from the troubles and vices that existed within the city, he chose a spot in the hills that surrounded Mecca. The cave where he used to pray was known as Hira and according to popular Islamic belief, this was where Muhammad first received the message of Islam and where his journey as a Prophet of God began.  [vi]  The angel Gabriel came to Muhammad with the following revelation: Read in the name of your Lord who created; Created man from a clot of blood; Read and your Lord is the most Beneficent; Who taught man by the pen; Taught man what he knew not (Quran 96: 1-5)  [vii]   These were the first revealed verses of the Islamic book, the Quran and since then Muhammad stopped retreating in the Cave of Hira and took upon himself the duty of spreading the message of God. At first, Muhammad only preached to his wife and close friends. But as more revelations enjoined him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, his target circle grew; at first the poor and the slaves, but later, also the more prominent people of Mecca. However, not everyone accepted what he had to say and even members of Muhammads own clan denied him openly. The opposition persecuted and tortured him and his early followers in every possible manner. But this did not deter Muhammad away from his mission but rather it strengthened and sharpened his resolve to spread the light of Islam. The Quraish had always held their idols in high regards and therefore found it difficult to come to terms with belief in one unseen God, which was one of the pinnacle pillars that Muhammads religion was based on. As Muslims grew in number, the severity of punishment of the local leaders also increased. They boycotted him and his followers from every kind of trade and transaction, so much so that they had to go without proper food and drink for many weeks. Soon, the opposition to Muhammad reached such a high pitch that, fearful for their safety, he sent some of his adherents to the Christian ruler of Abyssinia asking for protection.  [viii]  Before long, the fame of Muhammad had spread to almost every part of the Arabian Peninsula. A group of people from Yathrib, modern day Medina, met Muhammad and entered into a contract with the Muslims. When the persecutions in Mecca increased and life there became unbearable for the Muslims, the people of Yathrib invited the Prophet and his companions to migrate to their city.  [ix]  Muhammad accepted their invitation and this emigration from Mecca to Medina marked the beginning of an important Islamic era. The Muslims who migrated from Mecca were called the Muhajirs while the people of Medina who received them with open arms came to be known as the Ansars. It was here that Muhammad gradually laid the foundation of an Islamic state. Many of teachings of the Prophet in Medina were concerned with the life of a community in its social, political, economic and administrative aspects. With the help and support of the local Ansars, Muhammad was able to establish a system of government that was way ahead of the time it belonged to in terms of its form and working.  [x]   When the leaders of Mecca found out that Muhammad was building a city state, they became anxious about the new influence. They feared that this position of authority and power would encourage Muhammad to extract revenge on them. The Quraish believed the best way to deal with this threat was to destroy Islam in its infancy. They gathered a large army and marched north towards Medina. When Muhammad came to find out about their intentions, he too put together an army consisting of only three hundred and thirteen men. The resulting battle was known as the Battle of Badr and it was the first major war fought by the Muslims. Even though Muhammads army was poorly equipped and faced a force three times its size, they remained steadfast in their resolve towards protecting Islam and the Muslim army as a result was able to route the forces of Mecca. The Battle of Badr was a landmark in the history of Islam and it had several important effects in terms of Medina as a city state. Firstly, Muhammad with only a handful of men was able to defeat a much larger army through sheer determination and discipline. This brought home to the leaders of the Quraish, the abilities of the very man they had driven from their city. Also, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the battle had proved lukewarm when the actual fighting started. They were expelled from Medina and Muhammad served a warning to every tribe in allegiance with the Muslims: membership in the community imposed the obligation of total support.  [xi]   The Quraish, however, felt humiliated and almost one year after the Battle of Badr, they waged war again on the Muslims, this time coming with an army of almost three thousand soldiers. After establishing a strong foothold early in the battle, the Islamic army was put under pressure and had to retreat. Seeing as Muhammad and his followers were not entirely overpowered, the Quraish sent out an army again two years later in the hope of completely eliminating any sort of Islamic threat. At the Battle of the Trench, the result was completely different. The Muslims scored a signal victory by introducing a new form of defense. On the side of Median from which the attack was expected, they dug a trench too deep for the Meccan cavalry to clear without exposing itself to the archers posted behind the earthworks. After an inconclusive siege, the Meccans were forced to retire and thus establishing Medina and Muhammads Islam as a power to be reckoned with in the Arabian Peninsula.  [xii]   The Constitution of Medina dates from this period. The charter established Muhammad as the leader of Medina and the Muslims as a separate entity in their own right. The Constitution also defined the role of non-Muslims in the society. Jews, for example, were part of the community; they were dhimmis, that is, protected people, as long as they conformed to its laws. Followers of the monotheistic religions were permitted spiritual independence. This did not, however, pertain to the Pagans as they could not be tolerated in a place that worshiped one God.  [xiii]   According to Ibn Ishaq, one of the earliest biographers of the Prophet, it was at about this time that Muhammad sent letters to various rulers all around the world- the King of Persia, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Negus of Abyssinia, and the Governor of Egypt among others inviting them to submit to Islam.  [xiv]   Muhammad so efficiently established a number of allies that, by 628 AD, he and almost a thousand Muslims were able to stipulate admittance to Mecca. This was a milestone in the history of Islam. Just a short time before, Muhammad had left the same city to establish an Islamic state and now he was being treated by the Quraish as a leader. Almost a year later he was able to occupy Mecca without any violence which. He cleaned the Kabah from the gods that were present and forever ended idol worship. At the same time Amr bin Al As and Khaleed bin Walid, accepted Islam and swore allegiance to Muhammad. Their acceptance of Islam was very important because they would later go on and through various campaigns, expand the Muslim empire.  [xv]   After almost a decade since Muhammad migrated to Medina, he made his last pilgrimage to Mecca and delivered a farewell sermon to a congregation of about 120,000 people. Shortly afterwards, he was taken ill and passed away in 632 AD. The death of Muhammad was a profound loss. To his supporters he was more than a friend and a teacher. He was also a perfect role model who till this date has guided the faith and life of countless men and women and which has brought in a distinctive era in the history of mankind. After his death, Muhammads legacy was continued by his close companions who took the responsibility of presiding over the Muslim population for years to come based on his teachings. Muslim dynasties were soon established and subsequent empires such as those of the Persians, Ottomans and the Mughals of India, were among the largest and most powerful the world has ever seen. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, doctors and philosophers, all of whom contributed to the rise of Islam.

Baby Dumpers in Malaysia Essay

In Malaysia, cabinet decides baby dumping cases investigated as murder or attempted murder to ensure that inhuman acts receive severe punishment (â€Å"Mixed reaction to classifying†, 2010). Some others said that they should given a new chance to repent on what they have done. Our opinions, the punishment is heavy for them due to most of baby dumpers in Malaysia and other countries were committed by underage and teenagers around 20’s. In order to find the solutions for this problem, the community and government need to find the causes and factors that contribute to the problem first. The factors that contribute to baby dumping are cultural values and perspective of the community, HIV/AIDS, poverty and lack of sex education. Cultural value is a concept that a community sharing together about what is right, wrong, possible or impossible, true or false and so on (Young, 2009) while according Oxford dictionary perspective can describe as an attitude or a way of thinking about something. Some of country shares a similar perspective and values. Because of we cripple the issue of baby dumping, so we will focus on what the community thinks that broke into this problem. What makes one girl decided to dump the illegal baby, because they are afraid if they are not accepted by the family and society. This is because having children outside marriage which the mother is no longer involved in a relationship with the father is seen unacceptable in culture in certain country especially in Asian country and Africa (Maundeni & Nnyepi, 2011). Besides that, the mother who carried illegal baby in her belly will think that she would be a shame if people outside the family know about her pregnancy. Due to that, it leads mother to throw or bury their babies (â€Å"Baby-dumping rates soar among school girls†, 2011). Family and community play important roles in this case by giving a moral support for them (Hafidzhi Razali, 2012). Parents and community need to guide them and support them when they go through the phase of their mistake not judging them. This is because they are still young which cannot think what is right and wrong. Yes, they made mistake but the parents and community should correct them and tell them this is not the end of the world. We need to realize that these young people decided to abandon their baby because of they are out of options due to the limitations set upon by social circumstances. From being despised by society and scolded by the family, it is preferable to dump the baby. Abortion is prohibited in all religion no matter you are Christian, Islam, Jews, Buddha or Hindu. Abortion can be like killing a person life so that is why it is prohibits to practice. Many girls who share their experience said that they choose to abandon their babies is because of abortion is prohibited in society (Jia, 2010). Like we mentioned earlier, these girls are young to think what is right to do. So they think that abandon the baby is the best options rather than abortion. This is because they believe that abandon the baby in the dustbin which the baby is still alive is so much better than abort. The second factors that contribute to baby dumping are human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). When we say about HIV/AIDS, society always has negative thought about the disease. When someone get infected by other people, they will get the punishment too even though it not their fault. A child with HIV/AIDS always get insulted and negative look from the society even though they didn’t ask for the disease. Issue on baby dumping has been widely happen around the world. The baby been dumped because of the infected of HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS can be transmitting through sexual contact with the infected, sharing needles or other injection equipment with the infected person, through an open cut or wound and mother to infant. Mother to child transmission of the disease can be happen during the pregnancy month, delivery and after birth and breastfeeding (Otti & Jallow, 2003). This is called perinatal transmission that is usual way the disease transmitted to the child (American Pregnancy Association, 2012). The chances for the baby to be infected is 25% if the mother not taking any treatment during the pregnancy. Baby gets infected by the virus through the blood circulation from the mother HIV-positive, make the fetus to be exposed in the HIV process (Cichocki, 2010). Therefore, the mother who infected will feel depressed due to the transmission of HIV. The depression will lead the mother to dump the baby as her last option. During the delivery, the connection between mother and baby are umbilical cord, which connects the baby with the mother body fluids and blood that contains the virus. The body fluids may get the baby to be infected. Mother with HIV positive are not allow to breastfeed their babies because of the mother milk has very high concentration of HIV. They have been suggested to give commercial milk formula to their babies to avoid the babies from being infected. Due to that, it is kind of burden to the mother to spend money on commercial milk. The other major factor that will contribute to baby dumping is poverty. As we know that if the parents do not have any money to raise the child, they may dump their babies so that they will not have to pay all the baby basic’s requirements, (Sulayman Makalo, n. ). For example, to raise a good baby they will need shelter, and some other basic requirements. For some poor families, they cannot afford for the shelter. This is due to the money shortage and they neither able to buy nor rent a house for the family. Most of the cases of baby dumping are happened in the poor country such as Africa, (Skosana, n. d). There are so many people who live incompetent where some of the families did not plan the pregnancy, but then after the mother pregnant they are not able to raise and give the basic requirements to the baby. This include for the baby’s food, clothes and education. This may affect the developmental growth of the children (Sulayman Makalo, n. d). They dump their baby and hoping that someone will take care for their child with complete requirements with proper education. Other than that, there are some cases that the mother abandoned the baby as a solution due to desperation, (â€Å"Baby dumping-A genocide†, 2012). According to Gosamalang (2011), most of the women who leave and kill their babies are poor, single mother and often the first time mother. This may happen because they are fear of being poor while raising the child. Besides that, there will be a lot of cost needed to grow a child, to buy their food, milk, diapers and clothes. The mother may desperate and under pressure and finally they will dump the baby. Moreover, the father of the child doesn’t want to take the responsibility for the child, which may be the unwanted pregnancy and have no money and disable to grow them. In the developing country such as Malaysia, most of the cases are related to teenagers. This is because eenagers are still young, full with curiosity and not able to raise their own babies, (â€Å"Baby dumping-A genocide†, 2012). They only know to enjoy their youth while they actually have no money and not able to carry a huge responsibility, such as take cares their own baby. They are the largest group who neglect their babies with hope they can start a new life. They also should be studying in school or college where they have no sufficient money to survive with the baby. Here, it can be concluded that poverty is one of the major causes that escalates the baby dumping cases worldwide. The last factors that contribute to baby dumping are sex education. Nowadays, these youngsters are lack of knowledge about sex education, which they are clueless about it. In Nazni Noordin et al, 2012, research; they said that with not enough knowledge on sex, it adds to unwanted pregnancy which it can lead to the baby dumping issues. With the knowledge on sex education, the youngsters can differentiate between bad and good. So in order that all of these youngsters get all the knowledge on sex education, government must play a vital role so that the baby dumping issues are in control. Moreover, in order to decreases the issues, government should introduce sex education in school to combat baby dumping issues (â€Å"Malaysia Considering Sex Education†, 2010). With introducing sex education to school across Malaysia, it can tackle the widespread of baby dumping issues. Even though by bring out the sex education classes have against conservative elements, saying that it will encourage lechery, but with the abandoned of newborns all over the country by young mothers has forced a reconsider. Other than that, according to Singh and Tan, 2010, with sex education, it is creating an accurate understanding of reproductive health among the young, which it was important in reducing baby dumping. It is believe one of the methods that can adopt to raise awareness among schoolchildren especially the youngsters. To success the education, all sectors, includes government, private sector and non-governmental organizations were needed as part of a complete ways to address baby dumping. Furthermore, sex education in school also can create awareness among young generation towards consequences of free sex (Nazni Noordin et al, 2012). Nazni Noordin et al, 2012, also stated that, teenagers nowadays find it much harder to come up with good reasons to say â€Å"no† to sex and to use birth control pills carefully and it shows that there is low awareness among the teenagers towards the sex which its lead to the unwanted pregnancy and consequently, it will lead to baby dumping. Nazni Noordin et al, 2012 cited from Dr. Ismail Thamby, 2010, usually young generation will not think of the result with their behavior. In addition, it is not only government who responsible to control the baby dumping issues. It also must come from the â€Å"root† itself which is the teenagers’ parents or family. As a parent, they need to be fully aware of what their teenagers is taught in school. In order to overcome this situation, parents and family must be open-minded when it came to sex education or sex talk with their children. Moreover, parents should pay more attention and be more supportive to their children so that the young mothers are not afraid of them if they are pregnant outside the marriage (Nazni Noordin et al, 2012). Furthermore, they need to talk to their children about sexuality issues (Mellanby et al, 1995). Other than that, according to Mellanby et al, 1995, all parents should be prepared to answer questions that their children may have. By this it can be sure that the information that the parents provided is complete and accurate and more importantly, it reflects the family’s values. The parents also must control and aware of their children’s outdoor activities in order to prevents unwanted pregnancies which can lead to baby dumping. As the conclusion, this baby dumping issue is hard to control. Before we think about on how to solve this problem, we have to tackle from the root that contributes to baby dumping. Like we have discussed earlier, the factors that contribute to baby dumping are cultural values and perspective of the community, HIV and AIDS, poverty and sex education. Moreover, baby dumping gives so many negative impacts to our society and we have to take several actions in order to reduce the numbers of baby dumping cases.

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